Phonology

Definition

Phonology is the branch of linguistics concerned with the study of speechsounds with reference to their distribution and patterning. Adjective:phonological. A linguist who specializes in phonology is known as aphonologist.

In Fundamental Concepts in Phonology (2009), Ken Lodge observes that phonology "is about differences of meaning signaled by sound."

As discussed below, the boundaries between the fields of phonology andphonetics are not always sharply defined.

The Aim of Phonology

"The aim of phonology is to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages and to explain the variations that occur. We begin by analyzing an individual language to determine which sound units are used and which patterns they form--the language's sound system. We then compare the properties of different sound systems, and work out hypotheses about the rules underlying the use of sounds in particular groups of languages. Ultimately, phonologists want to make statements that apply to all languages. . . .

"Whereas phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds, phonology studies the way in which a language's speakers systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning.

"There is a further way of drawing the distinction. No two speakers have anatomically identical vocal tracts, and thus no one produces sounds in exactly the same way as anyone else. . . . Yet when using our language we are able to discount much of this variation, and focus on only those sounds, or properties of sound, that are important for the communication of meaning. We think of our fellow speakers as using the 'same' sounds, even though acoustically they are not. Phonology is the study of how we find order within the apparent chaos of speech sounds."
(David Crystal, How Language Works. Overlook Press, 2005)

- "When we talk about the 'sound system' of English, we are referring to the number

 of phonemeswhich are used in a language and to how they are organized."
(David Crystal, The Cambridge Encylopedia of the English Language, 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press, 2003)

 

Phoneme Systems

"[P]honology is not only about phonemes and allophones. Phonology also concerns itself with the principles governing the phoneme systems--that is, with what sounds languages 'like' to have, which sets of sounds are most common (and why) and which are rare (and also why). It turns out that there are prototype-based explanations for why the phoneme system of the languages of the world have the sounds that they do, with physiological/acoustic/perceptual explanations for the preference for some sounds over others."

(Geoffrey S. Nathan, Phonology: A Cognitive Grammar Introduction. John Benjamins, 2008)
 

The Phonetics-Phonology Interface

"Phonetics interfaces with phonology in three ways. First, phonetics defines distinctive features. Second, phonetics explains many phonological patterns. These two interfaces constitute what has come to be called the 'substantive grounding' of phonology (Archangeli & Pulleyblank, 1994). Finally, phonetics implements phonological representations

.
"The number and depth of these interfaces is so great that one is naturally moved to ask how autonomous phonetics and phonology are from one another and whether one can be largely reduced to the other. The answers to these questions in the current literature could not differ more. At one extreme, Ohala (1990b) argues that there is in fact no interface between phonetics and phonology because the latter can largely if not completely be reduced to the former. At the opposite extreme, Hale & Reiss (2000b) argue for excluding phonetics entirely from phonology because the latter is about computation, while the former is about something else. Between these extremes is a large variety of other answers to these questions . . .."
(John Kingston, "The Phonetics-Phonology Interface." The Cambridge Handbook of Phonology, ed. by Paul de Lacy. Cambridge University Press, 2007)

(The source of : http://grammar.about.com/od/pq/g/phonologyterm.htm)

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Characteristics and Features of Language

Characteristics and Features of Language

Language is, today, an inseparable part of human society. Human civilization has been possible only through language. It is through language only that humanity has come out of the stone age and has developed science, art and technology in a big way.  Language is a means of communication, it is arbitrary, it is a system of systems. We know that Speech is primary while writing is secondary.

Language is human so it differs from animal communication in several ways.  Language can have scores of characteristics but the following are the most important ones: language is arbitrary, productive, creative, systematic, vocalic, social, non-instinctive and conventional. These characteristics of language set human language apart from animal communication. Some of these features may be part of animal communication; yet they do not form part of it in total.

Language is Arbitrary: Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no inherent relation between the words of a language and their meanings or the ideas conveyed by them. There is no reason why a female adult human being be called a woman in English, aurat in Urdu, Zen in Persian and Femine in French. The choice of a word selected to mean a particular thing or idea is purely arbitrary but once a word is selected for a particular referent, it comes to stay as such. It may be noted that had language not been arbitrary, there would have been only one language in the world.

Language is Social: Language is a set of conventional communicative signals used by humans for communication in a community. Language in this sense is a possession of a social group, comprising an indispensable set of rules which permits its members to relate to each other, to interact with each other, to co-operate with each other; it is a social institution. Language exists in society; it is a means of nourishing and developing culture and establishing human relations.

Language is Symbolic: Language consists of various sound symbols and their graphological counterparts that are employed to denote some objects, occurrences or meaning. These symbols are arbitrarily chosen and conventionally accepted and employed. Words in a language are not mere signs or figures, but symbols of meaning. The intelligibility of a language depends on a correct interpretation of these symbols.

Language is Systematic: Although language is symbolic, yet its symbols are arranged in a particular system. All languages have their system of arrangements. Every language is a system of systems. All languages have phonological and grammatical systems, and within a system there are several sub-systems. For example, within the grammatical system we have morphological and syntactic systems, and within these two sub-systems we have systems such as those of plural, of mood, of aspect, of tense, etc.

Language is Vocal: Language is primarily made up of vocal sounds only produced by a physiological articulatory mechanism in the human body. In the beginning, it appeared as vocal sounds only. Writing came much later, as an intelligent attempt to represent vocal sounds. Writing is only the graphic representation of the sounds of the language. So the linguists say that speech is primary.

Language is Non-instinctive, Conventional: No language was created in a day out of a mutually agreed upon formula by a group of humans. Language is the outcome of evolution and convention. Each generation transmits this convention on to the next. Like all human institutions languages also change and die, grow and expand. Every language then is a convention in a community. It is non-instinctive because it is acquired by human beings. No body gets a language in heritage; he acquires it because he an innate ability.

Language is Productive and Creative: Language has creativity and productivity. The structural elements of human language can be combined to produce new utterances, which neither the speaker nor his hearers may ever have made or heard before any, listener, yet which both sides understand without difficulty. Language changes according to the needs of society. 

Finally, language has other characteristics such as Duality referring to the two systems of sound and meaning, Displacement which means the ability to talk across time and space, Humanness which means that animals cannot acquire it, Universality which refers to the equilibrium across humanity on linguistic grounds, Competence and Performance which means that language is innate and produced is society and furthermore, language is culturally transmitted. It is learnt by an individual from his elders, and is transmitted from one generation to another.  Thus using J. Firth’s term, language is a ‘polysystametic’. It is also open to be studied from multifaceted angles.

(https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/2010/12/16/characteristics-and-features-of-language)

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Narrative

Narrative

We are told about fantasy worlds in stories, poems, and myths. These are often narrative stories with beginning (orientation), middle (compilation) and ending (resolution).

The following text is the example of narrative text.

Sophie and the giants

When Sophie is kidnapped from home by the BFG ( Big Friendly Giant), the become close friends. Unfortunately for Sophie and the BFG, the other giants are revolting and disgusting. They even guzzle and swallomp nice little childdlers.

Sophie crouched still as a mouse inside the BFG’s pocket. She hardly dared breath. She was terrified she might sneeze. The sightest sound or movement would give her away. Through the tiny peep-hole she watched the giants clustering around the poor BFG. How revolving they were! All of them had piggy little eyes and enormous mouths with big sausage lips. When the Fleshlumpeater was speaking, she got a glimpse of his tongue. It was jet black, like a slab of black steak. Every one of them was more than twice as tall as the BFG.

Suddenly, the Fleshlumpeater shot out two enormous hands and grabbed the BFG around the waist. He tossed him high in the and shouted, ‘Cath him, Manhugger!’

The Manhugger cought him. The other giants spread out quickly in a large circle, each giant about twenty yards from his neighbour, preparing the game they were going to play. Now the Manhungger threw the BFG high and far, shouting ‘Catch him, Bonecruncher!’

The Bonecruncher ran forward and caught the tumbling BFG and immediately swung him up again. ‘Catch him, Childchewer!’ he shouted.

And so it went on. The giant were playing ball with the BFG, vying with each other to see who could throw him the highest. Sophie dug her nails into the sides of the pocket, trying to prevent herself from tumbling out when she was upside down. She felt as though she were in a barrel going over the Niagara Falls. And all the time there was the fearful danger that one of the giants would fails to catch the BFG and he would go crashing to the ground.

‘Catch him, Meatdripper!’…

‘Catch him, Gizzardgulper!...

‘Catch him, Maidmasher!’…

‘Catch him, Bloodbotlter!’...

‘Catch him!... Catch him!... Catch him!...

In the end, they got bored with this game. They dumped the poor BFG on the ground. He was dazed and shattered. They gave him a few kicks and shouted, ‘Run you little runt! Let us be seeing how fast you is galloping!’ The BFG ran. What else could he do? The giants picked up rock and hurled them after him. He managed to dodge them. ‘Ruddy little runt!’ they shouted. ‘Troggy little twit! Shrivelly shrimp! Mucky little midget! Squaggy little squib! Grobby little grub!’

At last the BFG got clear of them all and in another couple of minutes the pack of giant was out of sight over the horizon. Sophie popped her head up from the pocket. “I didn’t like that’, she said.

‘Phew!’ said the BFG. ‘Phew and far between! They was in a nasty crotching mood today, was they not! I is sorry you was having such a whirlgig time.’

‘No worse than you.’ Sophie said.

‘Would they ever really hurt you?

I isn’t ever trusting them.’the BFG said.

How do they actually catch the humans they eat?’ Sophie asked.

‘They do they actually catch the humans they eat? ‘Sophie asked.

They is usually just sticking an arm in through the bedroom window and snitching them from their beds, ‘  the BFG said.

‘Like you did to me.’

‘Ah, but I isn’t eating you, ‘ the BFG said.

How else do they catch them?’ Sophie asked.

‘Sometimes,’ the BFG said, they is swimmeling in from the sea like fishes with only their heads showing above the water and then out comes a big hairy hand and grabbles someone off the beach.’

‘Children as well?

Often chiddlers,’ the BFG said. ‘Little chiddlers who is building sandcastles on the beach. That is who the swimmeling ones are after. Little chiddlers is not so tough to eat as old grandmamma, so says the Childchewing Giant.’

As they talked, the BFG was galloping fast over the land. Sophie was standing right up in his waistcoat pocket now and holding on to the edge with both hands. Her head and shoulders were in the open and the wind was blowing in her hair.

‘How else do you catch people?’ she asked.

‘All of them is having their own special ways of catching the human bean,’ the BFG said. The Meatdripping Giant is preferring to pretend he is a big tree growing in the park. He is standing in the park in the dusky evening and he is holding great big branches over his head, and there he is waiting until some happy families is coming to have a picnic under the spreading tree, the end it is the Meatdripper who is having the picnic.’

‘It’s so awful! ‘ Sophie cried.

From the BFG by Roald Dahl

Exploring the text:

1. As the story begins, where is Sophie and what is she doing?
2. Why was the giants physically revolting?
3. Who are the main characters in this narrative?
4. Why was it dangerous for Sophie when the BFG was being thrown into the air?
5. What evidence can you find to show that the BFG is smaller than the other giants?
6. What is unusual about the language of the BFG and other giants?
7. How do the giants usually catch the human they eat?
8. Why do the giants like to catch little children?

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Punctuation

Punctuation

Capital letters

Capital letters are very important. They are used to begin sentences. They are also used to begin the proper names of people, places, commercial products, films, books, days, months, festivals and television programs. Here are some examples:

• people: Roald Dahl, Oodgeroo Noonuccal, Cathy Freeman, John Marsden
• places: Telegraph Road, London, Cape York, South America
• products: Mortein, Smarties, Sanyo, Toyota
• films: The Mummy, Star Wars, Blade Runner
• books: Harry Potter, Tyke Tiler, Going Solo, The Witches

Note: in titles, watch the little words such as the, from and in. These are not capitalised when they are used within a title; they are normally given capital letters only when they begin a title, for example, The Creature from the Black Lagoon.

Using capital letters

Write out following sentences and put in the capital letters where they are needed.

1. roald dahl is the author of the autobiography, boy ..............
2. one of the biggest selling cars in the world is the toyota corolla. ..............
3. easter occurs in april, and christmas comes in december. ..............
4. disneyland is situated in los angeles. ..............
5. william shakespeare wrote romeo and juliet, twelfth night, macbeth and hamlet. ..............
6. mercedes, volvo and rolls royce are luxury cars. ..............
7. a good way to travel in london and new york is by taxi. ..............
8. most children like smarties, kit kats and mars bars. ..............

Using capitals in your everyday life

Fill in this profile card giving the required information about yourself. Be sure to use capital letters when they are needed.

My Personal Profile

Name : ………………………………………………….

Street:   ………………………………………………….

Suburb: …………………………………………………. My photo

City: ………………………………………………….

Country of birth: ………………………………………………….

Your school: ………………………………………………….

Favourite teacher: ………………………………………………….

Favourite television program: ………………………………………………….

Favourite television breakfast cereal: ………………………………………………….

A person you admire: ………………………………………………….

A book you like: ………………………………………………….

Favourite CD: ………………………………………………….

Family car: ………………………………………………….

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Writing and Speaking

Writing and Speaking

Life stories

Writing is a special craft and it takes hard work- very few professional writers comment on it being easy. One of the best ways of improving your writing is to look closely at what other writers have written. Famous writers try to learn from others. Roald Dahl  had a notebook in which he jotted down word and sentences that he liked from other writers' books.

In their autobiographies both Dahl and Oodgeroo Noonuccal have given us detailed, vivid incidents from their childhood. Famous writers John Marsden has some important advice about writing. According to him the most important fault with new writers is omitting detail. He says, 'be specific. Name everything. Instead of saying "I climbed a tree" say "I climbed the old gum tree outside my bedroom window" explain the characters' feeling all the way through. Use all the senses. Describe everything you can about a character or scene.'

As you read the passage that follows, notice how the writers gives you detailed word pictures one after the other:

• 'My mother winding her bright curls around her finger'
• 'Peggotty with eyes so dark they seemed to darken her whole face'
• 'geese at side gate who came waddling after me'.

 It is also important to notice the writers uses his senses and gives his feelings about the scene:

• 'in that mouldy air,smelling of soup, coffee and pickles'
• 'that was a place to be run past at night'.

Memories of Childhood

Looking back into my childhood the first thing I remember are my mother and my old nurse Peggotty. My mother winding her bright curls around her finger, and straightening her waist in front of the mirror, quite proud of being so pretty. And Peggotty with eyes so dark they seemed to darken her whole face, and cheeks so hard and red I wonder the birds didn't mistake them for apples.

What else do I remember? In our backyard: a birdhouse on a pole, right in the centre, without any birds in it; a great dog kennel in the corner without any dog; and a quantity of roosters that looked terribly tall to me and walked about in a menacing manner. There was one who got up on a post and crowed, and made me shiver, he looked so fierce. And geese at the side gate who came waddling after me with their long necks stretched out. I used to dream of them at night as if they were lions.

Then inside the house, there was a long passage leading from the kitchen to the front door. A dark store room opened off it and that was a place to be run past at night. Who knew what lurked in there among those jars, in that mouldy air, smelling of soap, coffee and pickles?

There are my very earliest memories.

From David Copperfield by Charles Dickens

Writing life stories

Here's an opportunity to write about memories of childhood or incidents from your life. Try your hand at one of these:

1. Write down some of your memories beginning, 'I remember when...' or ' The first things I remember are...'
2. Think back over your life and then recount an experience that you'll always remember. It can be joyful, sad, exciting, dangerous, exhilarating. Read your experience to the class.
3. Write your life story and present it to the class. It's probably a good idea to start at the beginning and move through the events in chronological order to the present time. You'll need to talk about your family and friends. You may like to mention some of the important happenings and places in your life. Try and make your talk as interesting as possible.

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Going Crabbing

Going Crabbing

One day dad decided it was time to go look for mud-crabs once more. So that night mother set the alarm-clock for three the next morning, as she always did when we were going crabbing.before sunrise next day we girls were ordered to show a leg almost before the alarm had stopped ringing.

I wouldn't recommend a walk on the mud-flats, carrying gear in the form of fishing-lines, bran bags, crabs hooks, petrol and the tucker-box a half past three in the morning. I never liked it, because I was always half asleep, and because the mud-flats between our house and the boat would be almost covered with small soldier-crabs, which came out of their holes in the sand when the tide went out. Soldier-crabs are about the size of a walnut, pale-blue and yellow, and they look just like an army of marching soldiers. Even when I was wide awake, I used to watch my step, for the last thing I wanted to do was to squash a poor, innocent soldier-crabs, in spite of the fact that they were such a nuisance on the flats. I always got very upset when I stood on them. My sisters thought I was crazy. They just put their feet down expected the soldier-crabs to get out of their way. If they didn't-well, it was just too bad. Even Dad had a silent contempt for my sentiment. I could sense it. He prided himself on bringing up his children tough but not brutal. My brothers and sisters were very strong, healthy, and logical.but I was weak and sentimental.

From Stradbroke Dreamtime by Oodgeroo Noonuccal

(sometimes spelled 'Nunukul')

Exploring the text

1. What past experience is being recounted?
2. Who are the people in the story?
3. Where is the main action taking place?
4. Why didn't the writer like going crabbing?
5. When did the soldier-crabs come out of their holes?
6. In what way do the soldier-crabs behave like soldiers?
7. What were the writer's feelings when she stood on the soldier-crabs?
8. What were the writer's feelings when she stood on the soldier-crabs?
9. What was the attitude of her sisters to the soldier-crabs?
10. What do you learn about the writer's father from the story?

                                                        

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Tweedie and the Matron

Tweedie and the Matron

There was a boy in our dormitory during my first term called Tweedie, who one night started snoring soon after he had gone to sleep.

‘Who’s that talking?’ cried the Matron, bursting in. My own bed was close to the door, and I remember looking up at her from my pillow and seeing her standing there silhouetted against the light from the corridor and thinking how truly frightening she looked. I think it was her enormous bosom that scared me most of all. My eyes were riveted to it, and to me it was like a battering-ram or the bows of an icebreaker or maybe a couple of high-explosive bombs.

‘Own up!’ she cried. ‘Who was talking?’

We lay there in silence. Then Tweedie, who was lying fast asleep on his back with his mouth open, gave another snore.

The Matron stared at Tweedie. Snoring is a disgusting habit,’ she said. ‘Only the lower classes do it. We shall have to teach him a lesson.’

She didn’t switch on the light, but she advanced into the room and picked up a cake of soap from the nearest basin. The bare electric bulb in the corridor illuminated the whole dormitory in a pale creamy glow.

None of us dared to sit up in bed, but all eyes were on the Matron now, watching to see what she was going to do next. She always had a pair of scissors hanging by a white tape from her waist, and with this she began shaving thin slivers of soap into the palm of one hand. Then she went over to where the wretched Tweedie lay and very carefully she dropped these little soap-flakes into his open mouth. She had a whole handful of them and I thought she was never going to stop.

What on earth is going to happen? I wondered. Would Tweedie choke? Would he strangle? Might his throat get blocked up completely? Was she going to kill him?

The Matron stepped back a couple of paces and folded her arms across, or rather underneath, her massive chest.

Nothing happened. Tweedie kept right on snoring.

Then suddenly he began to gurgle and white bubbles appeared around his lips. The bubbles grew and grew until in the end his whole face seemed to be smothered in a bubbly foaming white soapy froth. It was a horrific sight. Then all at once, Tweedie gave a great cough and a splutter and he sat up very fast and began clawing at his face with his hands. ‘Oh!’ he stuttered. ‘Oh! Oh! Oh! Oh no! Wh-wh-what’s happening? Wh-wh-what’s on my face? Somebody help me!’

The Matron threw him a face flannel and said, ‘Wipe it off, Tweedie. And don’t ever let me hear you snoring again. Hasn’t anyone ever taught you not to go to sleep on your back?’

With that she marched out of the dormitory and slammed the door.

 From boy by Roald Dahl

Exploring the text

1. Where is the action taking place?
2. Who are the people involved in this recount?
3. What was the matron’s feeling about snoring?
4. ‘We shall have to teach him a lesson.’How does the matron do this?
5. “None of us dared to sit up in bed’. What explanation would you give to this?
6. What effect did the soap-flakes have on Tweedie?
7. How did Tweedie react when he woke up?
8. ‘She slammed the door’. What does this show about the matron?
9. What do you think was Roald Dahl’s purpose in recounting this story?
10. What comments would you make about the Matron’s character?

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